Open AccessArticle Dietary Macronutrient and Micronutrient Adequacy Relative to Individualized Energy-Adjusted Recommendations in Young Adults: The NutAF Study by Daniel Velázquez Díaz Daniel Velázquez Díaz Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1,*, Pablo Santiago-Arriaza Pablo Santiago-Arriaza Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1, Alejandro Perez-Bey Alejandro Perez-Bey Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 2, Juan Corral-Pérez Juan Corral-Pérez Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 3, María Rebollo-Ramos María Rebollo-Ramos Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 4, Alberto Marín-Galindo Alberto Marín-Galindo Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1, Adrián Montes-de-Oca-García Adrián Montes-de-Oca-García Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1, Andrea González-Mariscal Andrea González-Mariscal Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1 and Jesús G. Ponce-González Jesús G. Ponce-González Scilit Preprints.org Google Scholar 1,* 1 ExPhy Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Instituto de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica de Cádiz (INiBICA), Universidad de Cádiz, 11519 Cádiz, Spain 2 GALENO Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Instituto de Investigación e Innovación, Biomédica de Cádiz (INiBICA), Universidad de Cádiz, 11519 Cádiz, Spain 3 Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs. GRANADA, Hospital Clínico San Cecilio, 18100 Granada, Spain 4 ExPhy Research Group, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Instituto de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica de Cádiz (INiBICA), Universidad de Cádiz, 11519 Cádiz, Spain * Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed. Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(12), 5800; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125800 (registering DOI) Submission received: 3 May 2026 / Revised: 2 June 2026 / Accepted: 5 June 2026 / Published: 9 June 2026 Abstract Background: Adequate nutrition during young adulthood is essential for health promotion, optimal physiological function, and the prevention of non-communicable diseases. However, evidence describing both nutrient adequacy and compliance with dietary recommendations in well-characterized samples of young adults remains limited. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to describe macronutrient and micronutrient adequacy and to quantify compliance with current dietary recommendations in young adults using an individualized energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), and to explore sex differences to identify priority targets to inform tailored health promotion and public health nutrition strategies. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 74 young adults aged 18–45 years participating in the NutAF project. Dietary intake was assessed using a 5-day dietary record, including three weekdays and two weekend days. Modified nutrient adequacy ratios (NARm), adjusted according to individualized total daily energy expenditure, were calculated for macronutrients and micronutrients. The prevalence of compliance with current dietary recommendations was also determined. Differences between men and women were analyzed using independent samples t-tests. Results: Protein and total lipid intake levels exceeded recommended values in most participants, whereas carbohydrate adequacy was below recommendations. Regarding micronutrients, adequate intake was observed for several nutrients; however, low adequacy and low compliance rates were identified for calcium, folate, vitamin D, and omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. No participants met the recommendations for vitamin D. No significant sex differences were observed for most nutrients. Conclusions: Despite intake levels above recommendations for some macronutrients, young adults included in this study exhibited inadequate intake and low compliance with current dietary recommendations for several key nutrients. No relevant sex differences were observed for most nutrients. These findings, obtained using an individualized energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), underscore the need for targeted nutritional strategies, including nutrition education and micronutrient-focused interventions, aimed at improving dietary adequacy and supporting health promotion in this population. 1. Introduction Despite the growing body of research on dietary patterns and health outcomes, data on both nutrient adequacy and compliance with dietary recommendations in well-characterized samples of young adults remain limited, particularly within cohorts that integrate nutritional assessment into a broader lifestyle and physical activity framework [ 22, 23]. Furthermore, studies applying individualized energy-adjusted approaches to nutrient adequacy assessment in young adults are still scarce. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to describe macronutrient and micronutrient adequacy and to quantify compliance with current dietary recommendations in young adults using an individualized energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), and to analyze sex differences to identify priority targets to inform tailored health promotion and public health nutrition strategies. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design and Participants All participants were informed about the study procedures and provided written informed consent prior to participation. The study protocol was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar (Cádiz, Spain). 2.2. Anthropometric and Energy Expenditure Assessment Body mass and height were measured using a stadiometer (SECA 225; Vogel & Halke, Hamburg, Germany; precision: ±1 mm) and a Tanita bioimpedance MC-780MA multifrequency 8-electrode model (Tanita Corp, Tokyo, Japan), with participants wearing light clothing and no shoes. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg)/height 2 (m 2). Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) was estimated individually by combining resting metabolic rate (RMR), physical activity energy expenditure, and diet-induced thermogenesis. RMR was measured under standardized resting conditions using indirect calorimetry. Oxygen uptake (VO 2) and carbon dioxide production (VCO 2) were assessed in a conditioned room (21 ± 1 °C and 50 ± 2% relative humidity), with participants resting in a supine position for 30 min. Gas exchange data were collected using a Jaeger MasterScreen CPX ପ୍ପ indirect calorimetry system (CareFusion, San Diego, CA, USA), which was calibrated daily before each assessment. The first 5 min of data collection were discarded, and a stable 5 min period with coefficients of variation lower than 15% for VO 2 and VCO 2 was selected for analysis. RMR (kcal·day −1) was subsequently estimated using the equation proposed by Frayn [ 34]. Physical activity energy expenditure was objectively assessed using triaxial accelerometers (GT3X+, ActiGraph, Pensacola, FL, USA). Participants wore the accelerometer on the right hip for 7 consecutive days. Devices recorded acceleration at a sampling frequency of 30 Hz within a ±6 g dynamic range. Accelerometer data were processed using ActiLife software (version 6.6.2; ActiGraph), and physical activity intensities were classified according to the cut-off points proposed by Freedson [ 35]. Finally, TDEE was calculated as the sum of RMR, physical activity energy expenditure, and an additional 10% corresponding to diet-induced thermogenesis. 2.3. Dietary Assessment Dietary intake was assessed using a 5-day dietary record, including three weekdays and two weekend days. Participants received detailed instructions on how to record all foods and beverages consumed, including portion sizes, preparation methods, and brand names when applicable. Dietary records were reviewed with the participants to ensure completeness and accuracy prior to analysis. Dietary data were analyzed using specialized nutritional analysis DIAL software (version 3.15; Alce Ingeniería, Madrid, Spain) to estimate daily energy intake, macronutrient intake, and micronutrient intake. Nutrient intake values were averaged across the recorded days and used for subsequent analyses. 2.4. Modified Nutrient Adequacy Assessment, NARm Nutrient adequacy was evaluated using a modified Nutrient Adequacy Ratio (NARm), adapted from the original NAR approach [ 36]. NARm was calculated as the percentage of individual nutrient intake relative to the corresponding dietary recommendation for each nutrient [ 36]. To provide a more individualized assessment of nutrient adequacy, dietary recommendations were adjusted according to each participant’s TDEE. Standard EFSA dietary reference values [ 36] were proportionally adapted according to individual TDEE, previously estimated from RMR, accelerometry-derived physical activity energy expenditure, and diet-induced thermogenesis. Adjusted nutrient recommendations were calculated using the following formula: Adjusted recommendation = (standard EFSA recommendation ÷ reference energy intake) × individual TDEE Reference energy intakes of 2400 kcal·day −1 for men and 2000 kcal·day −1 for women were used, according to the standard reference diets established by the EFSA dietary guidelines [ 36]. Subsequently, NARm values were calculated as NARm = (individual nutrient intake ÷ adjusted recommendation) × 100 For prevalence analyses, compliance with dietary recommendations was defined as achieving at least 100% of the individualized adjusted recommendation for each nutrient. The proportion and number of participants meeting the recommendations were calculated for both macronutrients and micronutrients. 2.5. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics are presented as mean ± standard deviation for continuous variables and as proportions for categorical variables. Normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Variables that deviated from a normal distribution were subjected to natural logarithmic transformation prior to further analyses. Differences between men and women were analyzed using independent samples t-tests. Given the exploratory and descriptive nature of the study, adjustments for multiple comparisons were not applied. Therefore, findings related to sex-based comparisons should be interpreted with caution. Statistical significance was set at p 100%), whereas carbohydrates, starch, and polyunsaturated fatty acid adequacy were below recommended levels. No statistically significant differences were observed between men and women for macronutrient adequacy. Table 3 presents the mean micronutrient adequacy percentages relative to individualized energy-adjusted recommendations (NARm), stratified by sex. Adequacy values above recommended levels (>100%) were observed for iron, zinc, sodium, selenium, vitamins A, C, B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12. In contrast, the lowest adequacy values were observed for vitamin D. No statistically significant differences between men and women were found for most micronutrients. Table 4 and Table 5 present the prevalence of compliance with individualized macronutrient and micronutrient recommendations (NARm), stratified by sex. High compliance rates were observed for total lipid intake, simple sugars, selenium, and several B-group vitamins. However, low compliance was identified for carbohydrates, starch, calcium, potassium, folate, vitamin D, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. A similar compliance pattern was observed between men and women across most nutrients. 4. Discussion 4.1. Summary of Main Findings The present study aimed to describe macronutrient and micronutrient adequacy and to determine the prevalence of compliance with current dietary recommendations in young adults. The main findings indicate that, although protein and total lipid adequacy exceeded recommended values, inadequate intake was observed for several key nutrients, particularly carbohydrates, starch, polyunsaturated fatty acids, calcium, folate, and vitamin D. Furthermore, the prevalence analyses revealed that only a small proportion of participants met the recommendations for these nutrients, highlighting relevant nutritional gaps in this population. In the present study, no significant sex differences were observed for most macronutrient and micronutrient adequacy measures. This finding suggests that dietary inadequacies in young adulthood may be broadly shared across sexes, rather than being sex-specific in this population. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously, given the exploratory nature of the study and the relatively small sample size. Importantly, the present study applied an individualized energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), integrating objectively estimated total daily energy expenditure into the assessment of dietary adequacy. These findings, derived from both modified nutrient adequacy ratios (NARm) and prevalence-of-compliance analyses, provide a comprehensive overview of dietary adequacy in young adults and identify priority nutrients of public health concern that may compromise long-term health if not addressed. 4.2. Macronutrient Adequacy and Compliance 4.3. Micronutrient Adequacy and Compliance Regarding micronutrients, adequate intake was observed for several minerals and B-group vitamins in the study population. However, low adequacy and compliance were identified for vitamin D, folate, calcium, and potassium, highlighting these nutrients as major concerns in young adults. Among them, vitamin D showed the lowest compliance, with fewer than 10% of participants meeting the recommended intake, in line with the very low adequacy values observed through the individualized NARm approach. 4.4. Implications for Health Promotion in Young Adults Young adulthood represents a critical period for the establishment of long-term dietary habits and lifestyle behaviors. The identification of multiple nutrient inadequacies in this population underscores the importance of early preventive strategies focused on nutrition education and lifestyle modification [ 42, 43]. The present findings support the need for public health initiatives that promote balanced dietary patterns rich in complex carbohydrates, calcium, folate, vitamin D, and essential fatty acids. Moreover, increasing consumption of nutrient-dense foods such as dairy products, vegetables, legumes, and fatty fish may contribute to reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases later in life [ 1, 46]. 4.5. Strengths and Limitations The main strengths of this study include the comprehensive assessment of both nutrient adequacy and compliance with dietary recommendations, as well as the use of detailed dietary records covering both weekdays and weekend days. An additional strength is the application of an individualized, energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), integrating objectively estimated total daily energy expenditure through indirect calorimetry and accelerometry-derived physical activity assessment. Finally, the integration of nutritional assessment within a broader lifestyle research framework allowed for the characterization of a well-defined sample of young adults. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. The cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences, and dietary intake was self-reported, which may be subject to recall bias and under- or over-reporting. Moreover, the relatively small sample size, although comparable to those used in detailed dietary assessment studies, may limit the generalizability of the findings to other young adult populations. Also, the relatively limited sample size may have reduced the statistical power to detect moderate sex-related differences. Additionally, although the modified NARm approach allowed individualized adjustment according to estimated energy expenditure, this adaptation has not been formally validated against biomarker-based assessments of nutrient adequacy. Finally, the voluntary recruitment strategy may have introduced selection bias toward individuals with a greater interest in health, nutrition, or physical activity behaviors. Despite these limitations, the present study provides valuable descriptive data on nutrient adequacy and compliance with dietary recommendations among young adults, contributing to the understanding of dietary patterns relevant for health promotion strategies. 5. Conclusions In conclusion, young adults included in this study exhibit protein and total lipid intake levels above current dietary recommendations, whereas inadequate intake and low compliance were observed for several key nutrients, including carbohydrates, calcium, folate, vitamin D, and omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. No relevant sex differences were identified for most nutrients, suggesting that nutritional imbalances are similarly distributed across men and women. Therefore, population-wide nutritional strategies may be appropriate to address these gaps in young adults. Using an individualized, energy-adjusted nutrient adequacy approach (NARm), these findings highlight the presence of relevant nutritional imbalances during young adulthood and underscore the need for targeted nutritional strategies aimed at improving overall dietary quality and supporting long-term health promotion in this population. Author Contributions Conceptualization, D.V.D., P.S.-A., and J.G.P.-G.; data curation, J.C.-P., D.V.D., A.P.-B., M.R.-R., A.M.-G., A.M.-d.-O.-G., A.G.-M., and J.G.P.-G.; formal analysis, D.V.D., P.S.-A. and J.G.P.-G.; funding acquisition, D.V.D. and J.G.P.-G.; resources, J.G.P.-G.; writing—original draft, D.V.D., P.S.-A., and J.G.P.-G.; review and editing, D.V.D., P.S.-A., J.C.-P., A.P.-B., M.R.-R., A.M.-G., A.M.-d.-O.-G., A.G.-M., and J.G.P.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This work was supported by the University of Cadiz (grant numbers PR2016-051 and PR2019-054) as well as the Instituto de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica de Cádiz (LI19/21IN-CO09) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Ministerio de Ciencia) (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/PID2019-110063RA-I00). M.R.-R. is supported by a predoctoral grant from the University of Cadiz (UCA/REC44VPCT/2021). A.G.-M. is supported by a predoctoral grant from the Spanish Ministry of Universities (FPU22/01480). D.V.D. was supported by the Junta de Andalucía and the European Social Fund Plus (grant number DGP_POST_2024_00864). J.C.-P. was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Spain, through the ‘Sara Borrell’ postdoctoral contract (CD25/00165), and co-funded by the European Union. Institutional Review Board Statement This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethical Committee of Hospital Puerta del Mar (Cadiz, Spain). The code of approval was 1590 13 B, and the date of approval was 28 September 2017. Informed Consent Statement Informed consent was signed by all participants included in this study. Data Availability Statement Data are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author. Acknowledgments We would like to extend our gratitude to the research team behind the “NutAF” project and to the participants who made this study possible. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. References World Health Organization (WHO). Healthy Diet Fact Sheet; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020. Mozaffarian, D. Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review. Circulation 2016, 133, 187–225. 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Lancet 2019, 393, 1958–1972. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] Table 1. General characteristics and energy expenditure of the NutAF study participants. Table 1. General characteristics and energy expenditure of the NutAF study participants. Variable N Total Men (n = 47) Women (n = 27) p Age (years) 74 ୨୨.୬୫ ବ୍ଦ ୪.୧୮ ୨୨.୪୫ ବ୍ଦ ୩.୫୪ ୨୩.୦୦ ବ୍ଦ ୫.୧୬ 0.293 Height (cm) 74 ୧୭୧.୬୮ ବ୍ଦ ୮.୩୮ ୧୭୫.୮୭ ବ୍ଦ ୬.୧୬ ୧୬୪.୩୭ ବ୍ଦ ୬.୫୩ <0.001 Body mass (kg) 74 ୭୫.୨୪ ବ୍ଦ ୧୪.୫୪ ୭୭.୨୧ ବ୍ଦ ୧୨.୫୫ ୭୧.୮୧ ବ୍ଦ ୧୭.୨୧ 0.063 BMI (kg·m −2) 74 ୨୫.୬୧ ବ୍ଦ ୫.୪୨ ୨୪.୯୫ ବ୍ଦ ୩.୭୩ ୨୬.୭୬ ବ୍ଦ ୭.୪୬ 0.084 Total daily energy expenditure (kcal·day −1) 74 ୨୩୬୧.୧୨ ବ୍ଦ ୪୧୧.୨୫ ୨୫୩୬.୪୦ ବ୍ଦ ୩୫୯.୫୩ ୨୦୫୬.୦୦ ବ୍ଦ ୩୦୬.୪୯ <0.001 Resting metabolic rate (kcal·day −1) 74 ୧୮୪୧.୪୪ ବ୍ଦ ୩୧୦.୯୭ ୧୯୮୭.୫୯ ବ୍ଦ ୨୫୩.୦୮ ୧୫୮୭.୦୪ ବ୍ଦ ୨୨୮.୮୬ <0.001 Energy balance (kcal·day −1) 74 ୧୪୬.୬୩ ବ୍ଦ ୬୯୫.୨୫ ୧୭୪.୭୮ ବ୍ଦ ୭୧୬.୮୯ ୯୮.୬୭ ବ୍ଦ ୬୬୭.୩୧ 0.327 Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Differences between men and women were assessed using independent samples t-tests. Energy balance was calculated as energy intake minus total daily energy expenditure. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Bold values indicate statistical significance ( p < 0.05). Table 2. Mean macronutrient adequacy relative to individualized energy-adjusted recommendations (NARm) of the NutAF study participants. Table 2. Mean macronutrient adequacy relative to individualized energy-adjusted recommendations (NARm) of the NutAF study participants. Variable N Total Men (n = 47) Women (n = 27) p Water adequacy (%) 74 ୯୫.୪୨ ବ୍ଦ ୨୮.୯୨ ୯୨.୭୯ ବ୍ଦ ୩୦.୯୦ ୧୦୦.୦୧ ବ୍ଦ ୨୪.୯୮ 0.139 Carbohydrates adequacy (%) 74 ୮୧.୫୭ ବ୍ଦ ୨୮.୦୬ ୮୧.୪୮ ବ୍ଦ ୨୫.୧୩ ୮୧.୭୪ ବ୍ଦ ୩୩.୦୫ 0.485 Starch adequacy (%) 74 ୪୯.୪୬ ବ୍ଦ ୧୭.୭୨ ୪୯.୪୯ ବ୍ଦ ୧୬.୬୯ ୪୯.୩୯ ବ୍ଦ ୧୯.୭୨ 0.492 Simple sugars adequacy (%) 74 ୧୬୯.୦୫ ବ୍ଦ ୮୩.୧୭ ୧୬୬.୭୬ ବ୍ଦ ୬୫.୨୯ ୧୭୩.୦୨ ବ୍ଦ ୧୦୮.୮୮ 0.394 Protein adequacy (%) 74 ୧୧୩.୯୦ ବ୍ଦ ୩୧.୬୦ ୧୧୪.୩୮ ବ୍ଦ ୩୧.୫୫ ୧୧୩.୦୮ ବ୍ଦ ୩୨.୨୭ 0.434 Total lipids adequacy (%) 74 ୧୬୨.୪୦ ବ୍ଦ ୬୧.୬୦ ୧୬୨.୧୬ ବ୍ଦ ୬୨.୬୭ ୧୬୨.୮୨ ବ୍ଦ ୬୦.୮୬ 0.482 Saturated fatty acids adequacy (%) 74 ୧୪୪.୦୮ ବ୍ଦ ୫୭.୧୭ ୧୩୯.୯୩ ବ୍ଦ ୪୯.୦୧ ୧୫୧.୩୧ ବ୍ଦ ୬୯.୫୮ 0.229 Monounsaturated fatty acids adequacy (%) 74 ୧୯୫.୮୨ ବ୍ଦ ୯୦.୪୯ ୨୦୦.୫୩ ବ୍ଦ ୯୮.୦୮ ୧୮୭.୬୨ ବ୍ଦ ୭୬.୫୪ 0.354 Polyunsaturated fatty acids adequacy (%) 74 ୬୭.୮୦ ବ୍ଦ ୨୮.୫୫ ୬୬.୭୧ ବ୍ଦ ୨୯.୭୩ ୬୯.୭୦ ବ୍ଦ ୨୬.୮୦ 0.567 ω-6 fatty acids adequacy (%) 74 ୩୮.୮୮ ବ୍ଦ ୧୪.୫୫ ୩୭.୫୪ ବ୍ଦ ୧୩.୮୧ ୪୧.୨୨ ବ୍ଦ ୧୫.୭୪ 0.164 ω-3 fatty acids adequacy (%) 74 ୧୨.୧୪ ବ୍ଦ ୫.୨୬ ୧୧.୮୪ ବ୍ଦ ୪.୯୬ ୧୨.୬୭ ବ୍ଦ ୫.୭୫ 0.277 Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation of nutrient adequacy percentages relative to individualized energy-adjusted EFSA recommendations (NARm). Differences between men and women were assessed using independent samples t-tests. Table 3. Mean micronutrient adequacy relative to individualized energy-adjusted recommendations (NARm) of the NutAF study participants. Table 3. Mean micronutrient adequacy relative to individualized energy-adjusted recommendations (NARm) of the NutAF study participants. Variable n Total Men (n = 47) Women (n = 27) p Calcium adequacy (%) 74 ୯୧.୭୧ ବ୍ଦ ୩୪.୧୫ ୯୭.୭୦ ବ୍ଦ ୩୩.୫୫ ୮୧.୨୯ ବ୍ଦ ୩୩.୨୫ 0.060 Iron adequacy (%) 74 ୧୪୩.୩୨ ବ୍ଦ ୫୬.୭୦ ୧୪୬.୬୮ ବ୍ଦ ୫୪.୫୯ ୧୩୭.୪୭ ବ୍ଦ ୬୦.୮୩ 0.505 Magnesium adequacy (%) 74 ୯୫.୩୪ ବ୍ଦ ୩୨.୩୩ ୯୨.୭୩ ବ୍ଦ ୨୯.୦୩ ୯୯.୮୮ ବ୍ଦ ୩୭.୫୬ 0.364 Zinc adequacy (%) 74 ୧୨୫.୧୧ ବ୍ଦ ୪୧.୦୭ ୧୨୧.୭୭ ବ୍ଦ ୩୬.୮୧ ୧୩୦.୯୫ ବ୍ଦ ୪୭.୭୮ 0.358 Potassium adequacy (%) 74 ୮୬.୮୭ ବ୍ଦ ୨୯.୯୫ ୯୦.୬୧ ବ୍ଦ ୨୯.୬୪ ୮୦.୩୬ ବ୍ଦ ୨୯.୯୪ 0.158 Sodium adequacy (%) 74 ୧୭୮.୪୮ ବ୍ଦ ୧୨୮.୨୬ ୧୯୨.୬୭ ବ୍ଦ ୧୪୮.୦୧ ୧୫୩.୭୭ ବ୍ଦ ୮୦.୧୭ 0.211 Selenium adequacy (%) 74 ୧୭୫.୨୮ ବ୍ଦ ୫୬.୭୮ ୧୮୩.୬୩ ବ୍ଦ ୫୮.୭୨ ୧୬୦.୭୫ ବ୍ଦ ୫୧.୦୫ 0.095 Vitamin A adequacy (%) 74 ୧୨୪.୧୦ ବ୍ଦ ୧୦୨.୩୯ ୧୧୬.୨୬ ବ୍ଦ ୫୪.୬୧ ୧୩୭.୭୫ ବ୍ଦ ୧୫୪.୪୭ 0.388 Vitamin D adequacy (%) 74 ୨୦.୮୪ ବ୍ଦ ୧୨.୮୩ ୨୨.୩୩ ବ୍ଦ ୧୪.୪୧ ୧୮.୨୮ ବ୍ଦ ୯.୧୭ 0.193 Vitamin E adequacy (%) 74 ୮୪.୬୫ ବ୍ଦ ୩୯.୧୭ ୮୧.୧୯ ବ୍ଦ ୪୩.୦୯ ୯୦.୬୬ ବ୍ଦ ୩୧.୦୪ 0.320 Vitamin C adequacy (%) 74 ୧୦୩.୮୦ ବ୍ଦ ୫୮.୩୧ ୧୦୪.୦୧ ବ୍ଦ ୫୯.୩୭ ୧୦୩.୪୫ ବ୍ଦ ୫୭.୫୮ 0.968 Vitamin B1 adequacy (%) 74 ୧୭୩.୫୬ ବ୍ଦ ୬୬.୫୭ ୧୭୬.୭୯ ବ୍ଦ ୬୭.୭୨ ୧୬୭.୯୩ ବ୍ଦ ୬୫.୩୯ 0.585 Vitamin B2 adequacy (%) 74 ୧୨୧.୫୯ ବ୍ଦ ୫୨.୬୫ ୧୨୮.୪୧ ବ୍ଦ ୫୫.୫୦ ୧୦୯.୭୧ ବ୍ଦ ୪୫.୮୪ 0.142 Vitamin B3 adequacy (%) 74 ୨୭୨.୬୬ ବ୍ଦ ୮୦.୦୫ ୨୭୪.୮୯ ବ୍ଦ ୮୬.୦୯ ୨୬୮.୭୮ ବ୍ଦ ୬୯.୬୯ 0.754 Vitamin B6 adequacy (%) 74 ୧୪୩.୧୧ ବ୍ଦ ୫୮.୦୯ ୧୫୬.୪୨ ବ୍ଦ ୬୩.୦୯ ୧୧୯.୯୫ ବ୍ଦ ୩୯.୪୦ 0.055 Vitamin B9 adequacy (%) 74 ୮୨.୩୨ ବ୍ଦ ୩୪.୯୭ ୮୮.୨୯ ବ୍ଦ ୩୮.୮୯ ୭୧.୯୨ ବ୍ଦ ୨୪.୦୯ 0.052 Vitamin B12 adequacy (%) 74 ୧୭୩.୦୨ ବ୍ଦ ୧୦୯.୨୭ ୧୬୦.୪୦ ବ୍ଦ ୬୯.୮୪ ୧୯୪.୯୯ ବ୍ଦ ୧୫୫.୨୬ 0.192 Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation of micronutrient adequacy percentages relative to individualized energy-adjusted EFSA recommendations (NARm). Differences between men and women were assessed using independent samples t-tests. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Table 4. Prevalence of compliance with individualized energy-adjusted macronutrient recommendations (NARm) stratified by sex in the NutAF study participants. Table 4. Prevalence of compliance with individualized energy-adjusted macronutrient recommendations (NARm) stratified by sex in the NutAF study participants. Variable Total Sample (n = 74) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Men (n = 47) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Women (n = 27) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Water 44.6 (33) 42.6 (20) 48.1 (13) Carbohydrates 21.6 (16) 23.4 (11) 18.5 (5) Starch 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) Simple sugars 82.4 (61) 85.1 (40) 77.8 (21) Proteins 63.5 (47) 63.8 (30) 63.0 (17) Total lipids 94.6 (70) 93.6 (44) 96.3 (26) Saturated fatty acids 82.4 (61) 78.7 (37) 88.9 (24) Monounsaturated fatty acids 98.6 (73) 100.0 (47) 96.3 (26) Polyunsaturated fatty acids 6.8 (5) 8.5 (4) 3.7 (1) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-6) 6.8 (5) 10.6 (5) 0 (0) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3) 1.4 (1) 2.1 (1) 0 (0) Data are presented as the percentage and number of participants meeting the individualized energy-adjusted macronutrient recommendations (NARm), stratified by sex. Table 5. Prevalence of compliance with individualized energy-adjusted micronutrient recommendations (NARm) stratified by sex in the NutAF study participants. Table 5. Prevalence of compliance with individualized energy-adjusted micronutrient recommendations (NARm) stratified by sex in the NutAF study participants. Variable Total Sample (n = 74) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Men (n = 47) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Women (n = 27) % Meeting Recommendations (n) Calcium 36.5 (27) 46.8 (22) 18.5 (5) Iron 74.3 (55) 80.9 (38) 63.0 (17) Magnesium 39.2 (29) 38.3 (18) 40.7 (11) Zinc 70.3 (52) 68.1 (32) 74.1 (20) Potassium 28.4 (21) 31.9 (15) 22.2 (6) Sodium 87.8 (65) 95.7 (45) 74.1 (20) Selenium 90.5 (67) 93.6 (44) 85.2 (23) Vitamin A 50.0 (37) 51.1 (24) 48.1 (13) Vitamin D 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) Vitamin E 32.4 (24) 29.8 (14) 37.0 (10) Vitamin C 50.0 (37) 46.8 (22) 55.6 (15) Vitamin B1 91.9 (68) 93.6 (44) 88.9 (24) Vitamin B2 60.8 (45) 66.0 (31) 51.9 (14) Vitamin B3 100.0 (74) 100.0 (47) 100.0 (27) Vitamin B6 81.1 (60) 89.4 (42) 66.7 (18) Vitamin B9 (folate) 23.0 (17) 29.8 (14) 11.1 (3) Vitamin B12 81.1 (60) 87.2 (41) 70.4 (19) Data are presented as the percentage and number of participants meeting the individualized energy-adjusted micronutrient recommendations (NARm), stratified by sex. 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Sci. 2026, 16, 5800. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125800 AMA Style Velázquez Díaz D, Santiago-Arriaza P, Perez-Bey A, Corral-Pérez J, Rebollo-Ramos M, Marín-Galindo A, Montes-de-Oca-García A, González-Mariscal A, Ponce-González JG. Dietary Macronutrient and Micronutrient Adequacy Relative to Individualized Energy-Adjusted Recommendations in Young Adults: The NutAF Study. Applied Sciences. 2026; 16(12):5800. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125800 Chicago/Turabian Style Velázquez Díaz, Daniel, Pablo Santiago-Arriaza, Alejandro Perez-Bey, Juan Corral-Pérez, María Rebollo-Ramos, Alberto Marín-Galindo, Adrián Montes-de-Oca-García, Andrea González-Mariscal, and Jesús G. Ponce-González. 2026. "Dietary Macronutrient and Micronutrient Adequacy Relative to Individualized Energy-Adjusted Recommendations in Young Adults: The NutAF Study" Applied Sciences 16, no. 12: 5800. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125800 APA Style Velázquez Díaz, D., Santiago-Arriaza, P., Perez-Bey, A., Corral-Pérez, J., Rebollo-Ramos, M., Marín-Galindo, A., Montes-de-Oca-García, A., González-Mariscal, A., & Ponce-González, J. G. (2026). Dietary Macronutrient and Micronutrient Adequacy Relative to Individualized Energy-Adjusted Recommendations in Young Adults: The NutAF Study. Applied Sciences, 16(12), 5800. https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125800 Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here. Article Metrics Article metric data becomes available approximately 24 hours after publication online.
